Silvia Moreno Archives - Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases

Calcium transfer from the ER to other organelles for optimal signaling in Toxoplasma gondii

Donna Huber on November 12, 2025

Hypothetical model showing Ca2+ entry through two different types of Ca2+ channels, uptake by T. gondii sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+- ATPase (TgSERCA) into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and distribution to the other organelles via transfer from the ER to the mitochondria, Plant-Like Vacuolar Compartment (PLVAC), and apicoplast.

Ca2+ signaling in cells begins with the opening of Ca2+ channels in either the plasma membrane (PM) or endoplasmic reticulum (ER), leading to a sharp increase in the physiologically low (<100 nM) cytosolic Ca2+ level. The temporal and spatial regulation of Ca²+ is crucial for the precise activation of key biological processes. In the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, which infects approximately one-third of the global population, Ca²+ signaling governs essential aspects of the parasite’s infection cycle. T. gondii relies on Ca²+ signals to regulate pathogenic traits, with several Ca²+-signaling components playing critical roles. Ca2+ entry from the extracellular environment has been demonstrated in T. gondii for both, extracellular parasites, exposed to high Ca2+, and intracellular parasites, which acquire Ca²+ from host cells during host Ca²+ signaling events. Active egress, an essential step of the parasite’s infection cycle, is preceded by a large increase in cytosolic Ca2+, most likely initiated by release from intracellular stores. However, extracellular Ca2+ is also necessary to reach a cytosolic Ca2+ threshold required for timely egress. In this study, we investigated the mechanism of intracellular Ca²+ store replenishment and identified a central role for the SERCA-Ca2+-ATPase in maintaining Ca²+ homeostasis within the ER and in other organelles. We demonstrate mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake, which occurs by transfer of Ca2+ from the ER, likely through membrane contact sites. Our findings suggest that the T. gondii ER plays a key role in sequestering and redistributing Ca²+ to intracellular organelles following Ca²+ influx at the PM.

Zhu-Hong Li, Beejan Asady, Le Chang, Myriam Andrea Hortua Triana, Catherine Li, Isabelle Coppens, Silvia N J Moreno. Elife. 2025 Nov 12:13:RP101894. doi: 10.7554/eLife.101894.

Activity of Antibacterial/Antifungal Compounds against the Protozoan Parasite, Toxoplasma gondii

Donna Huber on August 28, 2025

We investigated the antiparasitic activity of several antimicrobial drug leads against Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites and, in one case, bradyzoites. Carbazole and phenylthiazole aminoguanidine anti-infectives, originally developed as antibacterial and antifungal agents, showed potent activity, with IC₅₀ values as low as 2 μM. This potency was comparable to that observed with the tuberculosis drug candidate SQ109 and a series of its analogs. Notably, SQ109 also significantly reduced the viability of in vivo-derived bradyzoites. All compounds acted, at least in part, as protonophore uncouplers by collapsing the ΔpH component of the proton motive force. Furthermore, SQ109 and the tetrahydrocarbazole (THCz) compounds disrupted the mitochondrial membrane potential in T. gondii tachyzoites. While SQ109 is known to activate macrophages to an M1 phenotype, we observed no significant difference in its activity against T. gondii grown in fibroblasts versus macrophages, likely due to the parasite’s residence within the protective parasitophorous vacuole. We also examined correlations between compound activity against the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and the bacterium Mycobacterium smegmatis, finding significant correlations between the collapse of the proton motive force and antiproliferative activity. Taken together, our findings underscore the potential of these antimicrobial agents as promising leads for the development of new antiparasitic therapies against T. gondii.

Davinder Singh, Melissa A Sleda, Satish R Malwal, Akanksha M Pandey, Yiyuan Chen, Ruijie Zhou, Feyisola Adewole, Katie Sadowska, Oluseye K Onajole, Silvia N J Moreno, Eric Oldfield. ACS Infect Dis. 2025 Aug 28. doi: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.5c00609.

The contribution of the Golgi and the endoplasmic reticulum to calcium and pH homeostasis in Toxoplasma gondii

Donna Huber on March 3, 2025

TgCAXL1 localizes to the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum.

The cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration of all cells is highly regulated demanding the coordinated operation of Ca2+ pumps, channels, exchangers and binding proteins. In the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii calcium homeostasis, essential for signaling, governs critical virulence traits. However, the identity of most molecular players involved in signaling and homeostasis in T. gondii are unknown or poorly characterized. In this work we studied a putative calcium proton exchanger, TgGT1_319550 (TgCAXL1), which belongs to a family of Ca²⁺/proton exchangers that localize to the Golgi apparatus. We localized TgCAXL1 to the Golgi and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of T. gondii and validated its role as a Ca²⁺/proton exchanger by yeast complementation. Characterization of a knock-out mutant for TgCAXL1 (Δcaxl) underscored the role of TgCAXL1 in Ca²⁺ storage by the ER and acidic stores, most likely the Golgi. Most interestingly, TgCAXL1 function is linked to the Ca²⁺ pumping activity of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Ca²⁺-ATPase (TgSERCA). TgCAXL1 functions in cytosolic pH regulation and recovery from acidic stress. Our data showed for the first time the role of the Golgi in storing and modulating Ca²⁺ signaling in T. gondii and the potential link between pH regulation and TgSERCA activity, which is essential for filling intracellular stores with Ca²⁺.

Abigail Calixto, Katherine Moen, Silvia Nj Moreno. J Biol Chem.. 2025 Mar 3:108372. doi: 10.1016/j.jbc.2025.108372.

Lipophilic bisphosphonates reduced cyst burden and ameliorated hyperactivity of mice chronically infected with Toxoplasma gondii

Donna Huber on October 10, 2024

Fig 1 Lipophilic bisphosphonates inhibited the viability of in vitro differentiated bradyzoites.

The current treatments for toxoplasmosis are only active against fast-growing tachyzoites, present in acute infections, with little effect on slow-growing bradyzoites within tissue cysts, present in latent chronic infections. The mitochondrion of Toxoplasma gondii is essential for its survival, and one of the major anti-parasitic drugs, atovaquone, inhibits the mitochondrial electron transport chain at the coenzyme Q:cytochrome c oxidoreductase site. Coenzyme Q (also known as ubiquinone [UQ]) consists of a quinone head and a lipophilic, isoprenoid tail that anchors UQ to membranes. The synthesis of the isoprenoid unit is essential for cell growth and is inhibited by lipophilic bisphosphonates, which inhibit the parasite growth. In this work, we investigated the effect of lipophilic bisphosphonates on the chronic stages of T. gondii. We discovered that three lipophilic bisphosphonates (BPH-1218, BPH-1236, and BPH-1238), effective for the acute infection, were also effective in controlling the development of chronic stages. We showed effectiveness by testing them against in vitro cysts and in vivo derived tissue cysts and, most importantly, these compounds reduced the cyst burden in the brains of chronically infected mice. We monitored the activity of infected mice non-invasively and continuously with a novel device termed the CageDot. A decrease in activity accompanied the acute phase, but mice recovered to normal activity and showed signs of hyperactivity when the chronic infection was established. Moreover, treatment with atovaquone or BPH-1218 ameliorated the hyperactivity observed during the chronic infection.IMPORTANCETreatment for toxoplasmosis is challenged by a lack of effective drugs to eradicate the chronic stages. Most of the drugs currently used are poorly distributed to the central nervous system, and they trigger allergic reactions in a large number of patients. There is a compelling need for safe and effective treatments for toxoplasmosis. Bisphosphonates (BPs) are analogs of inorganic pyrophosphate and are used for the treatment of bone disorders. BPs target the isoprenoid pathway and are effective against several experimental parasitic infections. Some lipophilic BPs can specifically inhibit the mitochondrial activity of Toxoplasma gondii by interfering with the mechanism by which ubiquinone is inserted into the inner mitochondrial membrane. In this work, we present the effect of three lipophilic BPs against T. gondii chronic stages. We also present a new strategy for the monitoring of animal activity during disease and treatment that is non-invasive and continuous.

Melissa A Sleda, Zaid F Pitafi, WenZhan Song, Eric Oldfield, Silvia N J Moreno. mBio. 2024 Oct 10:e0175624. doi: 10.1128/mbio.01756-24

Two CTEGD trainees receive AHA fellowships

Donna Huber on March 12, 2024

by Donna Huber

Photos of Graduate student Baihetiya “Barna” Baierna and postdoctoral fellow Mayara Bertolini — Graduate student Baihetiya “Barna” Baierna and postdoctoral fellow Mayara Bertolini received fellowships from the American Heart Association, supporting their research and education. Both are studying parasites in the University of Georgia’s Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases. (Photos courtesy of CTEGD)

Baihetiya “Barna” Baierna, a cellular biology graduate student in Silvia Moreno’s laboratory, received an American Heart Association Pre-doctoral Fellowship. It will fund her training for the next two years as she studies the mitochondrion of Toxoplasma gondii.

Baierna grew up wanting to follow in her mother’s footsteps as a scientist.

“My mom worked for the regional CDC in China and I was interested in science since a young age,” Baierna said.

After completing her undergraduate degree in biochemistry, she was sure she wanted to continue her training in graduate school. After being accepted into the Department of Cellular Biology program, she joined the Moreno Laboratory.

Toxoplasma gondii infects approximately one third of the world human population. The infection can cause serious complications in people with a suppressed immune system. Baierna’s research aims at validating novel T. gondii mitochondrial proteins as novel chemotherapeutic targets for improved chemotherapy of toxoplasmosis. This is important because the present drugs are not effective against the chronic stages of the infection. She has developed novel strategies for the discovery of new mitochondrial proteins and already found a novel enzymatic activity highly divergent from the mammalian counterpart. The outcome of this project will expand the knowledge of the T. gondii mitochondrion, as well as helping with the identification of viable drug targets.

“An AHA Fellowship is a very competitive award, but Barna deserves it and we are very proud of her,” said Moreno.

“Preparing the grant proposal was a great learning experience and it will help me with my career development,” said Baierna, “I’m very happy that it was funded.”

Mayara Bertolini, a post-doctoral fellow in Roberto Docampo’s laboratory, received an American Heart Association Post-doctoral Fellowship. It will support her training for one year.

After receiving her bachelor’s degree, Bertolini obtained her master’s degree in a lab that Docampo had set up in Brazil working on T. cruzi. From there she decided to pursue her Ph.D. at the University of Georgia. She completed her Ph.D. in 2023.

Trypanosoma cruzi is the parasite that causes Chagas disease. At least 6 million people, mostly in South America, are infected with the parasite. T. cruzi is transmitted to humans through the feces of an insect commonly referred to as the kissing bug. While Chagas disease was first discovered in 1909, there is still a lot that is unknown about the biology of T. cruzi. This lack of knowledge has hindered drug development. Bertolini’s project is focused on the role of polyphosphate during the Trypanosoma cruzi life cycle.

“This is the second fellowship from the AHA that Mayara has received. She got a two-year pre-doctoral fellowship before and has done outstanding work,” said Docampo.

“AHA Fellowships are very competitive and I’m thrilled my proposal was selected,” said Bertolini. “In addition to supporting my training, there is support for career development and networking opportunities.”

The story originally appeared at https://research.uga.edu/news/two-ctegd-trainees-receive-aha-fellowships/

Regulation of Calcium entry by cyclic GMP signaling in Toxoplasma gondii

Donna Huber on February 19, 2024

Figure 1. Calcium entry through the plasma membrane of extracellular T. gondii tachyzoites.

Ca²⁺ signaling impacts almost every aspect of cellular life. Ca²⁺ signals are generated through the opening of ion channels that permit the flow of Ca²⁺ down an electrochemical gradient. Cytosolic Ca²⁺ fluctuations can be generated through Ca²⁺ entry from the extracellular milieu or release from intracellular stores. In Toxoplasma gondii, Ca²⁺ ions play critical roles in several essential functions for the parasite like invasion of host cells, motility and egress. Plasma membrane Ca2+ entry in T. gondii was previously shown to be activated by cytosolic calcium and inhibited by the voltage-operated Ca²⁺ channel blocker nifedipine. However, Ca²⁺ entry in T. gondii did not show the classical characteristics of store regulation. In this work, we characterized the mechanism by which cytosolic Ca²⁺ regulates plasma membrane Ca²⁺ entry in extracellular T. gondii tachyzoites loaded with the Ca²⁺ indicator Fura 2. We compared the inhibition by nifedipine with the effect of the broad spectrum TRP channel inhibitor, anthranilic acid or ACA and we find that both inhibitors act on different Ca²⁺ entry activities. We demonstrate, using pharmacological and genetic tools, that an intracellular signaling pathway engaging cyclicGMP (cGMP), protein kinase G (PKG), Ca²⁺ and the phosphatidyl inositol phospholipase C (PI-PLC) affects Ca²⁺ entry and we present a model for crosstalk between cGMP and cytosolic Ca²⁺ for the activation of T. gondii‘s lytic cycle traits.

Miryam A Hortua Triana, Karla M Márquez-Nogueras, Mojtaba Sedigh Fazli, Shannon Quinn, Silvia N J Moreno. J Biol Chem. 2024 Feb 19:105771. doi: 10.1016/j.jbc.2024.105771

Interorganellar Communication Through Membrane Contact Sites in Toxoplasma gondii

Donna Huber on August 6, 2023

Figure 1. Reported and potential MCSs between organelles of Toxoplasma gondii. Schematic representation showing proteins recently reported to be involved in MCSs, along with putative MCS candidates (indicated with “?”). For clarity purposes, only the central part of the parasite is shown. Abbreviations: AP, apicoplast; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; PLVAC, plant-like vacuolar compartment; IMC, inner membrane complex; TgTPC, T. gondii two pore channel; VDAC, voltage-dependent anion channel; LMF1, lasso maintenance factor 1.; MCS, membrane contact site.

Apicomplexan parasites are a group of protists that cause disease in humans and include pathogens like Plasmodium spp., the causative agent of malaria, and Toxoplasma gondii, the etiological agent of toxoplasmosis and one of the most ubiquitous human parasites in the world. Membrane contact sites (MCSs) are widespread structures within eukaryotic cells but their characterization in apicomplexan parasites is only in its very beginnings. Basic biological features of the T. gondii parasitic cycle support numerous organellar interactions, including the transfer of Ca²⁺ and metabolites between different compartments. In T. gondii, Ca²⁺ signals precede a series of interrelated molecular processes occurring in a coordinated manner that culminate in the stimulation of key steps of the parasite life cycle. Calcium transfer from the endoplasmic reticulum to other organelles via MCSs would explain the precision, speed, and efficiency that is needed during the lytic cycle of T. gondii. In this short review, we discuss the implications of these structures in cellular signaling, with an emphasis on their potential role in Ca²⁺ signaling.

Diego Huet, Silvia N J Moreno. Contact (Thousand Oaks). 2023 Aug 6;6:25152564231189064. doi: 10.1177/25152564231189064. eCollection 2023 Jan-Dec.

Analysis of the Interactome of the Toxoplasma gondii Tgj1 HSP40 Chaperone

Donna Huber on March 1, 2023

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular apicomplexan that causes toxoplasmosis in humans and animals. Central to its dissemination and pathogenicity is the ability to rapidly divide in the tachyzoite stage and infect any type of nucleated cell. Adaptation to different cell contexts requires high plasticity in which heat shock proteins (Hsps) could play a fundamental role. Tgj1 is a type I Hsp40 of T. gondii, an ortholog of the DNAJA1 group, which is essential during the tachyzoite lytic cycle. Tgj1 consists of a J-domain, ZFD, and DNAJ_C domains with a CRQQ C-terminal motif, which is usually prone to lipidation. Tgj1 presented a mostly cytosolic subcellular localization overlapping partially with endoplasmic reticulum. Protein-protein Interaction (PPI) analysis showed that Tgj1 could be implicated in various biological pathways, mainly translation, protein folding, energy metabolism, membrane transport and protein translocation, invasion/pathogenesis, cell signaling, chromatin and transcription regulation, and cell redox homeostasis among others. The combination of Tgj1 and Hsp90 PPIs retrieved only 70 interactors linked to the Tgj1-Hsp90 axis, suggesting that Tgj1 would present specific functions in addition to those of the Hsp70/Hsp90 cycle, standing out invasion/pathogenesis, cell shape motility, and energy pathway. Within the Hsp70/Hsp90 cycle, translation-associated pathways, cell redox homeostasis, and protein folding were highly enriched in the Tgj1-Hsp90 axis. In conclusion, Tgj1 would interact with a wide range of proteins from different biological pathways, which could suggest a relevant role in them.

Jonathan Munera López, Andrés Mariano Alonso, Maria Julia Figueras, Ana María Saldarriaga Cartagena, Miryam A Hortua Triana, Luis Diambra, Laura Vanagas, Bin Deng, Silvia N J Moreno, Sergio Oscar Angel. Proteomes. 2023 Mar 1;11(1):9. doi: 10.3390/proteomes11010009.

The Toxoplasma Plant-Like Vacuolar Compartment (PLVAC)

Donna Huber on October 11, 2022

Toxoplasma gondii belongs to the phylum Apicomplexa and is an important cause of congenital disease and infection in immunocompromised patients. T. gondii shares several characteristics with plants including a non-photosynthetic plastid termed apicoplast and a multi-vesicular organelle that was named the plant-like vacuole (PLV) or vacuolar compartment (VAC). The name plant-like vacuole was selected based on its resemblance in composition and function to plant vacuoles. The name VAC represents its general vacuolar characteristics. We will refer to the organelle as PLVAC in this review. New findings in recent years have revealed that the PLVAC represents the lysosomal compartment of T. gondii which has adapted peculiarities to fulfill specific Toxoplasma needs. In this review, we discuss the composition and functions of the PLVAC highlighting its roles in ion storage and homeostasis, endocytosis, exocytosis, and autophagy.

Andrew J Stasic, Silvia N J Moreno, Vern B Carruthers, Zhicheng Dou. J Eukaryot Microbiol. 2022 Oct 11;e12951. doi: 10.1111/jeu.12951.

The Heptaprenyl Diphosphate Synthase (Coq1) Is the Target of a Lipophilic Bisphosphonate That Protects Mice against Toxoplasma gondii Infection

Donna Huber on September 21, 2022

Prenyldiphosphate synthases catalyze the reaction of allylic diphosphates with one or more isopentenyl diphosphate molecules to form compounds such as farnesyl diphosphate, used in, e.g., sterol biosynthesis and protein prenylation, as well as longer “polyprenyl” diphosphates, used in ubiquinone and menaquinone biosynthesis. Quinones play an essential role in electron transport and are associated with the inner mitochondrial membrane due to the presence of the polyprenyl group. In this work, we investigated the synthesis of the polyprenyl diphosphate that alkylates the ubiquinone ring precursor in Toxoplasma gondii, an opportunistic pathogen that causes serious disease in immunocompromised patients and the unborn fetus. The enzyme that catalyzes this early step of the ubiquinone synthesis is Coq1 (TgCoq1), and we show that it produces the C35 species heptaprenyl diphosphate. TgCoq1 localizes to the mitochondrion and is essential for in vitro T. gondii growth. We demonstrate that the growth defect of a T. gondii TgCoq1 mutant is rescued by complementation with a homologous TgCoq1 gene or with a (C45) solanesyl diphosphate synthase from Trypanosoma cruzi (TcSPPS). We find that a lipophilic bisphosphonate (BPH-1218) inhibits T. gondii growth at low-nanomolar concentrations, while overexpression of the TgCoq1 enzyme dramatically reduced growth inhibition by the bisphosphonate. Both the severe growth defect of the mutant and the inhibition by BPH-1218 were rescued by supplementation with a long-chain (C30) ubiquinone (UQ₆). Importantly, BPH-1218 also protected mice against a lethal T. gondii infection. TgCoq1 thus represents a potential drug target that could be exploited for improved chemotherapy of toxoplasmosis.

IMPORTANCE Millions of people are infected with Toxoplasma gondii, and the available treatment for toxoplasmosis is not ideal. Most of the drugs currently used are only effective for the acute infection, and treatment can trigger serious side effects requiring changes in the therapeutic approach. There is, therefore, a compelling need for safe and effective treatments for toxoplasmosis. In this work, we characterize an enzyme of the mitochondrion of T. gondii that can be inhibited by an isoprenoid pathway inhibitor. We present evidence that demonstrates that inhibition of the enzyme is linked to parasite death. In addition, the inhibitor can protect mice against a lethal dose of T. gondii. Our results thus reveal a promising chemotherapeutic target for the development of new medicines for toxoplasmosis.

Melissa A Sleda, Zhu-Hong Li, Ranjan Behera, Baihetiya Baierna, Catherine Li, Jomkwan Jumpathong, Satish R Malwal, Makoto Kawamukai, Eric Oldfield, Silvia N J Moreno. mBio. 2022 Sep 21;e0196622. doi: 10.1128/mbio.01966-22.

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